Answers to Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) on comp.lang.c

Steve Summit scs at adam.mit.edu
Fri Mar 1 16:14:55 AEST 1991


[Last modified February 28, 1991 by scs.]

Certain topics come up again and again on this newsgroup.  They are good
questions, and the answers may not be immediately obvious, but each time
they recur, much net bandwidth and reader time is wasted on repetitive
responses, and on tedious corrections to the incorrect answers which are
inevitably posted.

This article, which is posted monthly, attempts to answer these common
questions definitively and succinctly, so that net discussion can move
on to more constructive topics without continual regression to first
principles.

This article does not, and cannot, provide an exhaustive discussion of
every subtle point and counterargument which could be mentioned with
respect to these topics.  Cross-references to standard C publications
have been provided, for further study by the interested and dedicated
reader.

No mere newsgroup article can substitute for thoughtful perusal of a
full-length language reference manual.  Anyone interested enough in C to
be following this newsgroup should also be interested enough to read and
study one or more such manuals, preferably several times.  Some vendors'
compiler manuals are unfortunately inadequate; a few even perpetuate
some of the myths which this article attempts to refute.  Several
noteworthy books on C are listed in this article's bibliography.

If you have a question about C which is not answered in this article,
please try to answer it by checking a few of the referenced books, or by
asking knowledgeable colleagues, before posing your question to the net
at large.  There are many people on the net who are happy to answer
questions, but the volume of repetitive answers posted to one question,
as well as the growing numbers of questions as the net attracts more
readers, can become oppressive.  If you have questions or comments
prompted by this article, please reply by mail rather than following up
-- this article is meant to decrease net traffic, not increase it.

Besides listing frequently-asked questions, this article also summarizes
frequently-posted answers.  Even if you know all the answers, it's worth
skimming through this list once in a while, so that when you see one of
its questions unwittingly posted, you won't have to waste time
answering.

This article is always being improved.  Your input is welcomed.  Send
your comments to scs at adam.mit.edu, scs%adam.mit.edu at mit.edu, and/or
mit-eddie!adam!scs; this article's From: line may be unusable.

The questions answered here are divided into several categories:

      1. Null Pointers
      2. Arrays and Pointers
      3. Order of Evaluation
      4. ANSI C
      5. C Preprocessor
      6. Variable-Length Argument Lists
      7. Lint
      8. Memory Allocation
      9. Structures
     10. Declarations
     11. Boolean Expressions and Variables
     12. Operating System Dependencies
     13. Stdio
     14. Style
     15. Miscellaneous (Fortran to C converters, etc.)

Herewith, some frequently-asked questions and their answers:

Section 1. Null Pointers

1.   What is this infamous null pointer, anyway?

A:   The language definition states that for each pointer type, there is
     a special value -- the "null pointer" -- which is distinguishable
     from all other pointer values and which is not the address of any
     object.  That is, the address-of operator & will never yield a null
     pointer, nor will a successful call to malloc.  (malloc returns a
     null pointer when it fails, and this is a typical use of null
     pointers: as a "special" pointer value with some other meaning,
     usually "not allocated" or "not pointing anywhere yet.")

     A null pointer is conceptually different from an uninitialized
     pointer.  A null pointer is known not to point to any object; an
     uninitialized pointer might point anywhere (that is, at some random
     object, or at a garbage or unallocated address).  See also
     questions 51, 57, and 89.

     As mentioned in the definition above, there is a null pointer for
     each pointer type, and the internal values of null pointers for
     different types may be different.  Although programmers need not
     know the internal values, the compiler must always be informed
     which type of null pointer is required, so it can make the
     distinction if necessary (see below).

     References: K&R I Sec. 5.4 pp. 97-8; K&R II Sec. 5.4 p. 102; H&S
     Sec. 5.3 p. 91; ANSI Sec. 3.2.2.3 p. 38.

2.   How do I "get" a null pointer in my programs?

A:   According to the language definition, a constant 0 in a pointer
     context is converted into a null pointer at compile time.  That is,
     in an initialization, assignment, or comparison when one side is a
     variable or expression of pointer type, the compiler can tell that
     a constant 0 on the other side requests a null pointer, and
     generate the correctly-typed null pointer value.  Therefore, the
     following fragments are perfectly legal:

          char *p = 0;
          if(p != 0)

     However, an argument being passed to a function is not necessarily
     recognizable as a pointer context, and the compiler may not be able
     to tell that an unadorned 0 "means" a null pointer.  For instance,
     the Unix system call "execl" takes a variable-length, null-
     pointer-terminated list of character pointer arguments.  To
     generate a null pointer in a function call context, an explicit
     cast is typically required:

          execl("/bin/sh", "sh", "-c", "ls", (char *)0);

     If the (char *) cast were omitted, the compiler would not know to
     pass a null pointer, and would pass an integer 0 instead.  (Note
     that many Unix manuals get this example wrong.)

     When function prototypes are in scope, argument passing becomes an
     "assignment context," and casts may safely be omitted, since the
     prototype tells the compiler that a pointer is required, and of
     which type, enabling it to correctly cast unadorned 0's.  Function
     prototypes cannot provide the types for variable arguments in
     variable-length argument lists, however, so explicit casts are
     still required for those arguments.  It is safest always to cast
     null pointer function arguments, to guard against varargs functions
     or those without prototypes, to allow interim use of non-ANSI
     compilers, and to demonstrate that you know what you are doing.

     Summary:

          Unadorned 0 okay:        Explicit cast required:

          initialization           function call,
                                   no prototype in scope
          assignments
                                   variable argument to
          comparisons              varargs function

          function call,
          prototype in scope,
          fixed argument

     References: K&R I Sec. A7.7 p. 190, Sec. A7.14 p. 192; K&R II Sec.
     A7.10 p. 207, Sec. A7.17 p. 209; H&S Sec. 4.6.3 p. 72; ANSI Sec.
     3.2.2.3 .

3.   But aren't pointers the same as ints?

A:   Not since the early days.  Attempting to turn pointers into
     integers, or to build pointers out of integers, has always been
     machine-dependent and unportable, and doing so is strongly
     discouraged.  (Any object pointer may be cast to the "universal"
     pointer type void *, or char * under a pre-ANSI compiler, when
     heterogeneous pointers must be passed around.)  It is no longer
     guaranteed that a pointer can be cast to a "suitably capacious"
     integer and back, unchanged.

     References: K&R I Sec. 5.6 pp. 102-3; ANSI Sec. 3.2.2.3 p. 37, Sec.
     3.3.4 pp. 46-7.

4.   What is NULL and how is it #defined?

A:   As a matter of style, many people prefer not to have unadorned 0's
     scattered throughout their programs.  For this reason, the
     preprocessor macro NULL is #defined (by <stdio.h> or <stddef.h>),
     with value 0 (or (void *)0, about which more later).  A programmer
     who wishes to make explicit the distinction between 0 the integer
     and 0 the null pointer can then use NULL whenever a null pointer is
     required.  This is a stylistic convention only; the preprocessor
     turns NULL back to 0 which is then recognized by the compiler (in
     pointer contexts) as before.  In particular, a cast may still be
     necessary before NULL (as before 0) in a function call argument.
     (The table under question 2 above applies for NULL as well as 0.)

     NULL should _only_ be used for pointers; see question 9.

     References: K&R I Sec. 5.4 pp. 97-8; K&R II Sec. 5.4 p. 102; H&S
     Sec. 13.1 p. 283; ANSI Sec. 4.1.5 p. 99, Sec. 3.2.2.3 p. 38,
     Rationale Sec. 4.1.5 p. 74.

5.   How should NULL be #defined on a machine which uses a nonzero bit
     pattern as the internal representation of a null pointer?

A:   Programmers should never need to know the internal
     representation(s) of null pointers, because they are normally taken
     care of by the compiler.  If a machine uses a nonzero bit pattern
     for null pointers, it is the compiler's responsibility to generate
     it when the programmer requests, by writing "0" or "NULL," a null
     pointer.  Therefore, #defining NULL as 0 on a machine for which
     internal null pointers are nonzero is as valid as on any other,
     because the compiler must (and can) still generate the machine's
     correct null pointers in response to unadorned 0's seen in pointer
     contexts.

6.   If NULL were defined as follows:

          #define NULL (char *)0

     wouldn't that make function calls which pass an uncast NULL work?

A:   Not in general.  The problem is that there are machines which use
     different internal representations for pointers to different types
     of data.  The suggested #definition would make uncast NULL
     arguments to functions expecting pointers to characters to work
     correctly, but pointer arguments to other types would still be
     problematical, and legal constructions such as

          FILE *fp = NULL;

     could fail.

     Nevertheless, ANSI C allows the alternate

          #define NULL (void *)0

     definition for NULL.  Besides helping incorrect programs to work
     (but only on machines with all pointers the same, thus questionably
     valid assistance) this definition may catch programs which use NULL
     incorrectly (e.g. when the ASCII  NUL character was really
     intended).

7.   I use the preprocessor macro

          #define Nullptr(type) (type *)0

     to help me build null pointers of the correct type.

A:   This trick, though popular in some circles, does not buy much.  It
     is not needed in assignments and comparisons; see question 2.  It
     does not even save keystrokes.  Its use suggests to the reader that
     the author is shaky on the subject of null pointers, and requires
     the reader to check the #definition of the macro, its invocations,
     and _all_ other pointer usages much more carefully.

8.   Is the abbreviated pointer comparison "if(p)" to test for non-null
     pointers valid?  What if the internal representation for null
     pointers is nonzero?

A:   When C requires the boolean value of an expression (in the if,
     while, for, and do statements, and with the &&, ||, !, and ?:
     operators), a false value is produced when the expression compares
     equal to zero, and a true value otherwise.  That is, whenever one
     writes

          if(expr)

     where "expr" is any expression at all, the compiler essentially
     acts as if it had been written as

          if(expr != 0)

     Substituting the trivial pointer expression "p" for "expr," we have
          if(p)      is equivalent to                 if(p != 0)

     and this is a comparison context, so the compiler can tell that the
     (implicit) 0 is a null pointer, and use the correct value.  There
     is no trickery involved here; compilers do work this way, and
     generate identical code for both statements.  The internal
     representation of a pointer does _not_ matter.

     The boolean negation operator, !, can be described as follows:

          !expr      is essentially equivalent to     expr?0:1

     It is left as an exercise for the reader to show that

          if(!p)     is equivalent to                 if(p == 0)

     "Abbreviations" such as if(p), though perfectly legal, are
     considered by some to be bad style.

     See also question 74.

     References: K&R II Sec. A7.4.7 p. 204; H&S Sec. 5.3 p. 91; ANSI
     Secs. 3.3.3.3, 3.3.9, 3.3.13, 3.3.14, 3.3.15, 3.6.4.1, and 3.6.5 .

9.   If "NULL" and "0" are equivalent, which should I use?

A:   Many programmers believe that "NULL" should be used in all pointer
     contexts, as a reminder that the value is to be thought of as a
     pointer.  Others feel that the confusion surrounding "NULL" and "0"
     is only compounded by hiding "0" behind a #definition, and prefer
     to use unadorned "0" instead.  There is no one right answer.
     C programmers must understand that "NULL" and "0" are
     interchangeable and that an uncast "0" is perfectly acceptable in
     initialization, assignment, and comparison contexts.  Any usage of
     "NULL" (as opposed to "0") should be considered a gentle reminder
     that a pointer is involved; programmers should not depend on it
     (either for their own understanding or the compiler's) for
     distinguishing pointer 0's from integer 0's.

     NULL should _not_ be used when another kind of 0 is required, even
     though it might work, because doing so sends the wrong stylistic
     message.  (ANSI allows the #definition of NULL to be (void *)0,
     which will not work in non-pointer contexts.)  In particular, do
     not use NULL when the ASCII null character (NUL) is desired.
     Provide your own definition

          #define NUL '\0'

     if you must.

     Reference: K&R II Sec. 5.4 p. 102.

10.  But wouldn't it be better to use NULL (rather than 0) in case the
     value of NULL changes, perhaps on a machine with nonzero null
     pointers?

A:   No.  Although preprocessor macros are often used in place of
     numbers because the numbers might change, this is _not_ the reason
     that NULL is used in place of 0.  Once again, the language
     guarantees that source-code 0's (in pointer contexts) generate null
     pointers.  NULL is used only as a stylistic convention.

11.  I once used a compiler that wouldn't work unless NULL was used.

A:   Unless the code being compiled was nonportable (see question 6),
     that compiler was probably broken.  In general, making decisions
     about a language based on the behavior of one particular compiler
     is likely to be counterproductive.

12.  I'm confused.  NULL is guaranteed to be 0, but the null pointer is
     not?

A:   When the term "null" or "NULL" is casually used, one of several
     things may be meant:

     1.   The conceptual null pointer, the abstract language concept
          defined in question 1.  It is implemented with...

     2.   The internal (or run-time) representation of a null pointer,
          which may or may not be all-bits-0 and which may be different
          for different pointer types.  The actual values should be of
          concern only to compiler writers.  Authors of C programs never
          see them, since they use...

     3.   The source code syntax for null pointers, which is the single
          character "0".  It is often hidden behind...

     4.   The NULL macro, which is #defined to be "0" or "(void *)0".
          Finally, as a red herring, we have...

     5.   The ASCII null character (NUL), which does have all bits zero,
          but has no relation to the null pointer except in name.

     This article always uses the phrase "null pointer" (in lower case)
     for sense 1, the character "0" for sense 3, and the capitalized
     word "NULL" for sense 4.

13.  Why is there so much confusion surrounding null pointers?  Why do
     these questions come up so often?

A:   C programmers traditionally like to know more than they need to
     about the underlying machine implementation.  The fact that null
     pointers are represented both in source code, and internally to
     most machines, as zero invites unwarranted assumptions.  The use of
     a preprocessor macro (NULL) suggests that the value might change
     later, or on some weird machine.  The construct "if(p == 0)" is
     easily misread as calling for conversion of p to an integral type,
     rather than 0 to a pointer type, before the comparison.  Finally,
     the distinction between the several uses of the term "null" (listed
     above) is often overlooked.

     One good way to wade out of the confusion is to imagine that C had
     a keyword (perhaps "nil", like Pascal) with which null pointers
     were requested.  The compiler could either turn "nil" into the
     correct type of null pointer, when it could determine the type from
     the source code (as it does with 0's in reality), or complain when
     it could not.  Now, in fact, in C the keyword for a null pointer is
     not "nil" but "0", which works almost as well, except that an
     uncast "0" in a non-pointer context generates an integer zero
     instead of an error message, and if that uncast 0 was supposed to
     be a null pointer, the code may not work.

14.  I'm still confused.  I just can't understand all this null pointer
     stuff.

A:   Follow these two simple rules:

     1.   When you want to refer to a null pointer in source code, use
          "0" or "NULL".

     2.   If the usage of "0" or "NULL" is an argument in a function
          call, cast it to the pointer type expected by the function
          being called.

     The rest of the discussion has to do with other people's
     misunderstandings, or with the internal representation of null
     pointers, which you shouldn't need to know.  Understand questions
     1, 2, and 4, and consider 9 and 13, and you'll do fine.

15.  Given all the confusion surrounding null pointers, wouldn't it be
     easier simply to require them to be represented internally by
     zeroes?

A:   If for no other reason, doing so would be ill-advised because it
     would unnecessarily constrain implementations which would otherwise
     naturally represent null pointers by special, nonzero bit patterns,
     particularly when those values would trigger automatic hardware
     traps for invalid accesses.

     Besides, what would this requirement really accomplish?  Proper
     understanding of null pointers does not require knowledge of the
     internal representation, whether zero or nonzero.  Assuming that
     null pointers are internally zero does not make any code easier to
     write (except for a certain ill-advised usage of calloc; see
     question 57).  Known-zero internal pointers would not obviate casts
     in function calls, because the _size_ of the pointer might still be
     different from that of an int.  (If "nil" were used to request null
     pointers rather than "0," as mentioned in question 13, the urge to
     assume an internal zero representation would not even arise.)

16.  Seriously, have any actual machines really used nonzero null
     pointers?

A:    "Certain Prime computers use a value different from all-
      bits-0 to encode the null pointer.  Also, some large
      Honeywell-Bull machines use the bit pattern 06000 to encode
      the null pointer.  On such machines, the assignment of 0 to
      a pointer yields the special bit pattern that designates the
      null pointer."

                 -- Portable C, by H. Rabinowitz and Chaim Schaap,
                 Prentice-Hall, 1990, page 147.

     The "certain Prime computers" were the segmented 50 series, which
     used segment 07777, offset 0 for the null pointer, at least for
     PL/I.  Later models used segment 0, offset 0 for null pointers in
     C, necessitating new instructions such as TCNP (Test C Null
     Pointer), evidently as a sop to all the extant poorly-written C
     code which made incorrect assumptions.

     The Symbolics Lisp Machine, a tagged architecture, does not even
     have conventional numeric pointers; it uses the pair <NIL, 0>
     (basically a nonexistent <object, offset> handle) as a C null
     pointer.


Section 2. Arrays and Pointers

17.  I had the definition char x[6] in one source file, and in another I
     declared extern char *x.  Why didn't it work?

A:   The declaration extern char *x simply does not match the actual
     definition.  The type "pointer-to-type-T" is not the same as
     "array-of-type-T."  Use extern char x[].

     References: CT&P Sec. 3.3 pp. 33-4, Sec. 4.5 pp. 64-5.

18.  But I heard that char x[] was identical to char *x.

A:   Not at all.  (What you heard has to do with formal parameters to
     functions; see question 21.)  Arrays are not pointers.  The
     declaration "char a[6];" requests that space for six characters be
     set aside, to be known by the name "a."  That is, there is a
     location named "a" at which six characters can sit.  The
     declaration "char *p;" on the other hand, requests a place which
     holds a pointer.  The pointer is to be known by the name "p," and
     can point to any char (or contiguous array of chars) anywhere.

     As usual, a picture is worth a thousand words.  The statements

          char a[] = "hello";
          char *p = "world";
          char *p2 = a;

     would result in data structures which could be represented like
     this:

               +---+---+---+---+---+---+
            a: | h | e | l | l | o |\0 |
               +---+---+---+---+---+---+
                 ^
                 |
              +--|--+
          p2: |  *  |
              +-----+

              +-----+     +---+---+---+---+---+---+
           p: |  *======> | w | o | r | l | d |\0 |
              +-----+     +---+---+---+---+---+---+

19.  You mean that a reference like x[3] generates different code
     depending on whether x is an array or a pointer?

A:   Precisely.  Referring back to the sample declarations in the
     previous question, when the compiler sees the expression a[3], it
     emits code to start at the location "a," move three past it, and
     fetch the character there.  When it sees the expression p[3], it
     emits code to start at the location "p," fetch the pointer value
     there, add three to the pointer, and finally fetch the character
     pointed to.  In the example above, both a[3] and p[3] (and p2[3],
     for that matter) happen to be the character 'l', but that the
     compiler gets there differently.  (See also question 100.)

20.  So what is meant by the "equivalence of pointers and arrays" in C?

A:   Much of the confusion surrounding pointers in C can be traced to a
     misunderstanding of this statement.  Saying that arrays and
     pointers are "equivalent" does not by any means imply that they are
     interchangeable.

     "Equivalence" refers to the following key definition:

      An identifier of type array-of-T which appears in an
      expression decays (with three exceptions) into a pointer to
      its first element; the type of the resultant pointer is
      pointer-to-T.

     (The exceptions are when the array is the operand of the sizeof()
     operator or of the & operator, or is a literal string initializer
     for a character array.)

     As a consequence of this definition, there is not really any
     difference in the behavior of the "array subscripting" operator []
     as it applies to arrays and pointers.  In an expression of the form
     a[i], the array name "a" decays into a pointer, following the rule
     above, and is then subscripted exactly as would be a pointer
     variable in the expression p[i].  In either case, the expression
     x[i] (where x is an array or a pointer) is, by definition, exactly
     equivalent to *((x)+(i)).

     References: K&R I Sec. 5.3 pp. 93-6; K&R II Sec. 5.3 p. 99; H&S
     Sec. 5.4.1 p. 93; ANSI Sec. 3.3.2.1, Sec. 3.3.6 .

21.  Then why are array and pointer declarations interchangeable as
     function formal parameters?

A:   Since arrays decay immediately into pointers, an array is never
     actually passed to a function.  Allowing pointer parameters to be
     declared as arrays is a simply a way of making it look as though
     the array was being passed.  Some programmers prefer, as a matter
     of style, to use this syntax to indicate that the pointer parameter
     is expected to point to the start of an array rather than to some
     single value.

     Since functions can never receive arrays as parameters, any
     parameter declarations which "look like" arrays, e.g.

          f(a)
          char a[];

     are treated by the compiler as if they were pointers, since that is
     what the function will receive if an array is passed:

          f(a)
          char *a;

     To repeat, however, this conversion holds only within function
     formal parameter declarations, nowhere else.  If this conversion
     bothers you, don't use it; many people have concluded that the
     confusion it causes outweighs the small advantage of having the
     declaration "look like" the call and/or the uses within the
     function.

     References: K&R I Sec. 5.3 p. 95, Sec. A10.1 p. 205; K&R II Sec.
     5.3 p. 100, Sec. A8.6.3 p. 218, Sec. A10.1 p. 226; H&S Sec. 5.4.3
     p. 96; ANSI Sec. 3.5.4.3, Sec. 3.7.1, CT&P Sec. 3.3 pp. 33-4.

22.  Someone explained to me that arrays were really just constant
     pointers.

A:   That person did you a disservice.  An array name is "constant" in
     that it cannot be assigned to, but an array is _not_ a pointer, as
     the discussion and pictures in question 18 should make clear.

23.  I came across some "joke" code containing the "expression"
     5["abcdef"] .  How can this be legal C?

A:   Yes, Virginia, array subscripting is commutative in C.  This
     curious fact follows from the pointer definition of array
     subscripting, namely that a[e] is exactly equivalent to *((a)+(e)),
     for _any_ expression e and primary expression a, as long as one of
     them is a pointer expression and one is integral.  This unsuspected
     commutativity is often mentioned in C texts as if it were something
     to be proud of, but it finds no useful application outside of the
     Obfuscated C Contest (see also question 97).

24.  My compiler complained when I passed a two-dimensional array to a
     routine expecting a pointer to a pointer.

A:   The rule by which arrays decay into pointers is not applied
     recursively.  An array of arrays (i.e. a two-dimensional array in
     C) decays into a pointer to an array, not a pointer to a pointer.
     Pointers to arrays can be confusing, and must be treated carefully.
     (The confusion is heightened by the existence of incorrect
     compilers, including some versions of pcc and pcc-derived lint's,
     which improperly accept assignments of multi-dimensional arrays to
     multi-level pointers.)  If you are passing a two-dimensional array
     to a function:

          int array[YSIZE][XSIZE];
          f(array);

     the function's declaration should match:

          f(int a[][XSIZE]) {...}
     or

          f(int (*ap)[XSIZE]) {...}       /* ap is a pointer to an array */

     In the first declaration, the compiler performs the usual implicit
     parameter rewriting of "array of array" to "pointer to array;" in
     the second form the pointer declaration is explicit.  Since the
     called function does not allocate space for the array, it does not
     need to know the overall size, so the number of "rows," YSIZE, can
     be omitted.  The "shape" of the array is still important, so the
     "column" dimension XSIZE (and, for 3- or more dimensional arrays,
     the intervening ones) must be included.

     If a function is already declared as accepting a pointer to a
     pointer, it is probably incorrect to pass a two-dimensional array
     directly to it.

25.  How do I declare a pointer to an array?

A:   Usually, you don't want to.  Consider using a pointer to one of the
     array's elements instead.  Arrays of type T decay into pointers to
     type T, which is convenient; subscripting or incrementing the
     resultant pointer accesses the individual members of the array.
     True pointers to arrays, when subscripted or incremented, step over
     entire arrays, and are generally only useful when operating on
     multidimensional arrays, if at all.  (See question 24 above.)  When
     people speak casually of a pointer to an array, they usually mean a
     pointer to its first element; the type of this latter pointer is
     generally more useful.

     If you really need to declare a pointer to an entire array, use
     something like "int (*ap)[N];" where N is the size of the array.
     (See also question 69.)  If the size of the array is unknown, N can
     be omitted, but the resulting type, "pointer to array of unknown
     size," is almost completely useless.

26.  How can I dynamically allocate a multidimensional array?

A:   It is usually best to allocate an array of pointers, and then
     initialize each pointer to a dynamically-allocated "row." The
     resulting "ragged" array can save space, although it is not
     necessarily contiguous in memory as a real array would be.  Here is
     a two-dimensional example:

          int **array = (int **)malloc(nrows * sizeof(int *));
          for(i = 0; i < nrows; i++)
                  array[i] = (int *)malloc(ncolumns * sizeof(int));

     (In "real" code, of course, each return value from malloc should be
     checked.)

     You can keep the array's contents contiguous, while making later
     reallocation of individual rows difficult, with a bit of explicit
     pointer arithmetic:
          int **array = (int **)malloc(nrows * sizeof(int *));
          array[0] = (int *)malloc(nrows * ncolumns * sizeof(int));
          for(i = 1; i < nrows; i++)
                  array[i] = array[0] + i * ncolumns;

     In either case, the elements of the dynamic array can be accessed
     with normal-looking array subscripts: array[i][j].

     If the double indirection implied by the above schemes is for some
     reason unacceptable, you can simulate a two-dimensional array with
     a single, dynamically-allocated one-dimensional array:

          int *array = (int *)malloc(nrows * ncolumns * sizeof(int));

     However, you must now perform subscript calculations manually,
     accessing the i,jth element with array[i * ncolumns + j].  (A macro
     can hide the explicit calculation, but invoking it then requires
     parentheses and commas which don't look exactly like
     multidimensional array subscripts.)


Section 3. Order of Evaluation

27.  Under my compiler, the code

          int i = 7;
          printf("%d\n", i++ * i++);

     prints 49.  Regardless of the order of evaluation, shouldn't it
     print 56?

A:   Although the postincrement and postdecrement operators ++ and --
     perform the operations after yielding the former value, many people
     misunderstand the implication of "after." It is _not_ guaranteed
     that the operation is performed immediately after giving up the
     previous value and before any other part of the expression is
     evaluated.  It is merely guaranteed that the update will be
     performed sometime before the expression is considered "finished"
     (before the next "sequence point," in ANSI C's terminology).  In
     the example, the compiler chose to multiply the previous value by
     itself and to perform both increments afterwards.

     The order of other embedded side effects is similarly undefined.
     For example, the expression i + (i = 2) does not necessarily yield
     4.

     The behavior of code which contains ambiguous or undefined side
     effects has always been undefined.  (Note, too, that a compiler's
     choice, especially under ANSI rules, for "undefined behavior" may
     be to refuse to compile the code.)  Don't even try to find out how
     your compiler implements such things (contrary to the ill-advised
     exercises in many C textbooks); as K&R wisely point out, "if you
     don't know _how_ they are done on various machines, that innocence
     may help to protect you."

     References: K&R I Sec. 2.12 p. 50; K&R II Sec. 2.12 p. 54; ANSI
     Sec. 3.3 p. 39; CT&P Sec. 3.7 p. 47; PCS Sec. 9.5 pp. 120-1.
     (Ignore H&S Sec. 7.12 pp. 190-1, which is obsolete.)

28.  But what about the &&, ||, and comma operators?
     I see code like "if((c = getchar()) == EOF || c == '\n')" ...

A:   There is a special exception for those operators, (as well as ?: );
     each of them does imply a sequence point (i.e. left-to-right
     evaluation is guaranteed).  Any book on C should make this clear.

     References: K&R I Sec. 2.6 p. 38, Secs. A7.11-12 pp. 190-1; K&R II
     Sec. 2.6 p. 41, Secs. A7.14-15 pp. 207-8; ANSI Secs. 3.3.13 p. 52,
     3.3.14 p. 52, 3.3.15 p. 53, 3.3.17 p. 55, CT&P Sec. 3.7 pp. 46-7.


Section 4. ANSI C

29.  What is the "ANSI C Standard?"

A:   In 1983, the American National Standards Institute commissioned a
     committee, X3J11, to standardize the C language.  After a long,
     arduous process, including several widespread public reviews, the
     committee's work was finally ratified as an American National
     Standard, X3.159-1989, on December 14, 1989, and published in the
     spring of 1990.  For the most part, ANSI C standardizes existing
     practice, with a few additions from C++ (most notably function
     prototypes) and support for multinational character sets (including
     the much-lambasted trigraph sequences).  The ANSI C standard also
     formalizes the C run-time library support routines.

     The published Standard includes a "Rationale," which explains many
     of its decisions, and discusses a number of subtle points,
     including several of those covered here.  (The Rationale is "not
     part of ANSI Standard X3.159-1989, but is included for information
     only.")

     The Standard has also been adopted as an international standard,
     ISO/IEC 9899:1990, although the Rationale is currently not
     included.

30.  How can I get a copy of the ANSI C standard?

A:   Copies are available from

          American National Standards Institute
          1430 Broadway
          New York, NY  10018  USA
          (+1) 212 642 4900

     or

          Global Engineering Documents
          2805 McGaw Avenue
          Irvine, CA  92714  USA
          (+1) 714 261 1455
          (800) 854 7179  (U.S. & Canada)

     The cost from ANSI is $50.00, plus $6.00 shipping.  Quantity
     discounts are available.  (Note that ANSI derives revenues to
     support its operations from the sale of printed standards, so
     electronic copies are _not_ available.)

     The Rationale, by itself, has been printed by Silicon Press, ISBN
     0-929306-07-4.

31.  Does anyone have a tool for converting old-style C programs to ANSI
     C, or for automatically generating prototypes?

A:   Two programs, protoize and unprotoize, are being written to convert
     back and forth between prototyped and "old style" function
     definitions and declarations.  (These programs are _not_ expected
     to handle full-blown conversion between "Classic" C and ANSI C.)
     When available, these programs will exist as patches to the FSF GNU
     C compiler, gcc.

     Several prototype generators exist, many as modifications to lint.
     (See also questions 95 and 96.)

32.  What's the difference between "char const *p" and "char * const p"?

A:   "char const *p" is a pointer to a constant character (you can't
     change the character); "char * const p" is a constant pointer to a
     (variable) character (i.e. you can't change the pointer).  (Read
     these "inside out" to understand them.  See question 69.)

33.  My ANSI compiler complains about a mismatch when it sees

          extern int func(float);

          int func(x)
          float x;
          {...

A:   You have mixed the new-style prototype declaration
     "extern int func(float);" with the old-style definition
     "int func(x) float x;".  Old C (and ANSI C, in the absence of
     prototypes) silently promotes floats to doubles when passing them
     as arguments, and arranges that doubles being passed are coerced
     back to floats if the formal parameters are declared that way.

     The problem can be fixed either by using new-style syntax
     consistently in the definition:

          int func(float x) { ... }

     or by changing the new-style prototype declaration to match the
     old-style definition:

          extern int func(double);

     (In this case, it would be clearest to change the old-style
     definition to use double as well, as long as the address of that
     parameter is not taken.)

     Reference: ANSI Sec. 3.3.2.2 .

34.  I'm getting strange syntax errors inside code which I've #ifdeffed
     out.

A:   Under ANSI C, the text inside a "turned off" #if, #ifdef, or
     #ifndef must still consist of "valid preprocessing tokens."  This
     means that there must be no unterminated comments or quotes (note
     particularly that an apostrophe within a contracted word could look
     like the beginning of a character constant), and no newlines inside
     quotes.  Therefore, natural-language comments and pseudocode should
     always be written between the "official" comment delimiters /* and
     */.  (But see also question 98.)

     References: ANSI Sec. 2.1.1.2 p. 6, Sec. 3.1 p. 19 line 37.

35.  Why does the ANSI Standard not guarantee more than six monocase
     characters of external identifier significance?

A:   The problem is older linkers which are neither under the control of
     the ANSI standard nor the C compiler developers on the systems
     which have them.  The limitation is only that identifiers be
     _significant_ in the first six characters, not that they be
     restricted to six characters in length.  This limitation is
     annoying, but certainly not unbearable, and is marked in the
     Standard as "obsolescent," i.e. a future revision will likely relax
     it.

     This concession to current, restrictive linkers really had to be
     made, no matter how vehemently some people oppose it.  (The
     Rationale notes that its retention was "most painful.")  If you
     disagree, or have thought of a trick by which a compiler burdened
     with a restrictive linker could present the C programmer with the
     appearance of more significance in external identifiers, read the
     excellently-worded section 3.1.2 in the X3.159 Rationale (see
     question 29), which discusses several such schemes and explains why
     they could not be mandated.

     References: ANSI Sec. 3.1.2 p. 21, Sec. 3.9.1 p. 96, Rationale Sec.
     3.1.2 pp. 19-21.

36.  What was noalias and what ever happened to it?

A:   noalias was another type qualifier, in the same syntactic class as
     const and volatile, which was intended to assert that the object
     pointed to was not also pointed to ("aliased") by other pointers.
     The primary application, which is an important one, would have been
     for the formal parameters of subroutines designed to perform
     computations on large arrays.  A compiler can not usually take
     advantage of vectorization or other parallelization hardware (on
     supercomputers which have it) unless it can ensure that the source
     and destination arrays do not overlap.

     The noalias keyword was not backed up by any "prior art," and it
     was introduced late in the review and approval process.  It was
     phenomenally difficult to define precisely and explain coherently,
     and sparked widespread, acrimonious debate, including a scathing
     pan by Dennis Ritchie.  It had far-ranging implications,
     particularly on several standard library interfaces, for which easy
     fixes were not readily apparent.

     Because of the criticism and the difficulty of defining noalias
     well, the Committee wisely declined to adopt it, in spite of its
     superficial attractions.  (When writing a standard, features cannot
     be introduced halfway; their full integration, and all
     implications, must be understood.)  The need for a mechanism to
     support parallel implementation of non-overlapping operations
     remains unfilled (although the C Numerical Extensions Working Group
     is examining the problem).

     References: ANSI Sec. 3.9.6 .

37.  What are #pragmas and what are they good for?

A:   The #pragma directive (based on a similar feature in Ada, of all
     things) provides a single, well-defined "escape hatch" which can be
     used for all sorts of implementation-specific controls and
     extensions: source listing control, structure packing, warning
     suppression (like the old lint /* NOTREACHED */ comments), etc.

     References: ANSI Sec. 3.8.6 .


Section 5. C Preprocessor

38.  How can I write a generic macro to swap two values?

A:   There is no good answer to this question.  If the values are
     integers, a well-known trick using exclusive-OR could perhaps be
     used, but it will not work for floating-point values or pointers,
     (and the "obvious" supercompressed implementation for integral
     types a^=b^=a^=b is, strictly speaking, illegal due to multiple
     side-effects; and it will not work if the two values are the same
     variable, and...).  If the macro is intended to be used on values
     of arbitrary type (the usual goal), it cannot use a temporary,
     since it does not know what type of temporary it needs, and
     standard C does not provide a typeof operator.  (GNU C does.)

     The best all-around solution is probably to forget about using a
     macro.  If you're worried about the use of an ugly temporary, and
     know that your machine provides an exchange instruction, convince
     your compiler vendor to recognize the standard three-assignment
     swap idiom in the optimization phase.

39.  I have some old code that tries to construct identifiers with a
     macro like

          #define Paste(a, b) a/**/b

     but it doesn't work any more.

A:   That comments disappeared entirely and could therefore be used for
     token pasting was an undocumented feature of some early
     preprocessor implementations, notably Reiser's.  ANSI affirms (as
     did K&R) that comments are replaced with white space.  However,
     since the need for pasting tokens was demonstrated and real, ANSI
     introduced a well-defined token-pasting operator, ##, which can be
     used like this:

          #define Paste(a, b) a##b

     Reference: ANSI Sec. 3.8.3.3 p. 91, Rationale pp. 66-7.

40.  What's the best way to write a multi-statement cpp macro?

A:   The usual goal is to write a macro that can be invoked as if it
     were a single function-call statement.  This means that the
     "caller" will be supplying the final semicolon, so the macro body
     should not.  The macro body cannot be a simple brace-delineated
     compound statement, because syntax errors would result if it were
     invoked (apparently as a single statement, but with a resultant
     extra semicolon) as the if branch of an if/else statement with an
     explicit else clause.

     The traditional solution is to use

          #define Func() do { \
                  /* declarations */ \
                  stmt1; \
                  stmt2; \
                  /* ... */ \
                  } while(0)      /* (no trailing ; ) */

     When the "caller" appends a semicolon, this expansion becomes a
     single statement regardless of context.  (An optimizing compiler
     will remove any "dead" tests or branches on the constant condition
     0, although lint may complain.)

     If all of the statements in the intended macro are simple
     expressions, with no declarations, conditionals, or loops, another
     technique is to write a single, parenthesized expression using one
     or more comma operators.  (This technique also allows a value to be
     "returned.")

     Reference: CT&P Sec. 6.3 pp. 82-3.

41.  How can I write a cpp macro which takes a variable number of
     arguments?

A:   One popular trick is to define the macro with a single argument,
     and call it with a double set of parentheses, which appear to the
     preprocessor to indicate a single argument:

          #define DEBUG(args) {printf("DEBUG: "); printf args;}

          if(n != 0) DEBUG(("n is %d\n", n));

     The obvious disadvantage is that the caller must always remember to
     use the extra parentheses.  (It is often best to use a bona-fide
     function, which can take a variable number of arguments in a well-
     defined way, rather than a macro.  See questions 42 and 43 below.)


Section 6. Variable-Length Argument Lists

42.  How can I write a function that takes a variable number of
     arguments?

A:   Use the <stdarg.h> header (or, if you must, the older <varargs.h>).

     Here is a function which concatenates an arbitrary number of
     strings into malloc'ed memory:

          #include <stddef.h>             /* for NULL, size_t */
          #include <stdarg.h>             /* for va_ stuff */
          #include <string.h>             /* for strcat et al */
          #include <stdlib.h>             /* for malloc */

          /* VARARGS1 */

          char *vstrcat(char *first, ...)
          {
                  size_t len = 0;
                  char *retbuf;
                  va_list argp;
                  char *p;

                  if(first == NULL)
                          return NULL;

                  len = strlen(first);

                  va_start(argp, first);

                  while((p = va_arg(argp, char *)) != NULL)
                          len += strlen(p);

                  va_end(argp);

                  retbuf = malloc(len + 1);       /* +1 for trailing \0 */

                  if(retbuf == NULL)
                          return NULL;            /* error */

                  (void)strcpy(retbuf, first);

                  va_start(argp, first);

                  while((p = va_arg(argp, char *)) != NULL)
                          (void)strcat(retbuf, p);

                  va_end(argp);

                  return retbuf;
          }

     Usage is something like

          char *str = vstrcat("Hello, ", "world!", (char *)NULL);

     Note the cast on the last argument.  (Also note that the caller
     must free the returned, malloc'ed storage.)

     Under a pre-ANSI compiler, rewrite the function definition without
     a prototype ("char *vstrcat(first) char *first; {"), include
     <stdio.h> rather than <stddef.h>, replace "#include <stdlib.h>"
     with "extern char *malloc();", and use int instead of size_t.  You
     may also have to delete the (void) casts, and use the older varargs
     package instead of stdarg.  See the next question for hints.

     (If you know enough about your machine's architecture, it is
     possible to pick arguments off of the stack "by hand," but there is
     little reason to do so, since portable mechanisms exist.  If you
     know how to access arguments "by hand," but have access to neither
     <stdarg.h> nor <varargs.h>, you could as easily implement
     <stdarg.h> yourself, leaving your code portable.)

     References: K&R II Sec. 7.3 p. 155, Sec. B7 p. 254; H&S Sec. 13.4
     pp. 286-9; ANSI Secs. 4.8 through 4.8.1.3 .

43.  How can I write a function that takes a format string and a
     variable number of arguments, like printf, and passes them to
     printf to do most of the work?

A:   Use vprintf, vfprintf, or vsprintf.

     Here is an "error" routine which prints an error message, preceded
     by the string "error: " and terminated with a newline:

          #include <stdio.h>
          #include <stdarg.h>

          /* VARARGS1 */

          void
          error(char *fmt, ...)
          {
                  va_list argp;
                  fprintf(stderr, "error: ");
                  va_start(argp, fmt);
                  vfprintf(stderr, fmt, argp);
                  va_end(argp);
                  fprintf(stderr, "\n");
          }

     To use the older <varargs.h> package, instead of <stdarg.h>, change
     the function header to:

          void error(va_alist)
          va_dcl
          {
                  char *fmt;

     change the va_start line to

          va_start(argp);

     and add the line

          fmt = va_arg(argp, char *);

     between the calls to va_start and vfprintf.  (Note that there is no
     semicolon after va_dcl.)

     References: K&R II Sec. 8.3 p. 174, Sec. B1.2 p. 245; H&S Sec.
     17.12 p. 337; ANSI Secs. 4.9.6.7, 4.9.6.8, 4.9.6.9 .

44.  How can I write a function analogous to scanf?

A:   Unfortunately, vscanf and the like are not standard.  You're on
     your own.

45.  How can I discover how many arguments a function was actually
     called with?

A:   This information is not available to a portable program.  Some
     systems have a nonstandard nargs() function available, but its use
     is questionable, since it typically returns the number of words
     pushed, not the number of arguments.  (Floating point values and
     structures are usually passed as several words.)

     Any function which takes a variable number of arguments must be
     able to determine from the arguments themselves how many of them
     there are.  printf-like functions do this by looking for formatting
     specifiers (%d and the like) in the format string (which is why
     these functions fail badly if the format string does not match the
     argument list).  Another common technique (useful when the
     arguments are all of the same type) is to use a sentinel value
     (often 0, -1, or an appropriately-cast null pointer) at the end of
     the list (see the execl and vstrcat examples under questions 2 and
     42 above).

46.  How can I write a function which takes a variable number of
     arguments and passes them to some other function (which takes a
     variable number of arguments)?

A:   In general, you cannot.  You must provide a version of that other
     function which accepts a va_list pointer, as does vfprintf in the
     example above.  If the arguments must be passed directly as actual
     arguments (not indirectly through a va_list pointer) to another
     function which is itself variadic (for which you do not have the
     option of creating an alternate, va_list-accepting version) no
     portable solution is possible.  (The problem can be solved by
     resorting to machine-specific assembly language.)


Section 7. Lint

47.  I just typed in this program, and it's acting strangely.  Can you
     see anything wrong with it?

A:   Try running lint first.  Most C compilers are really only half-
     compilers, electing not to diagnose numerous source code
     difficulties which would not actively preclude code generation.
     That the "other half," better error detection, was deferred to
     lint, was a fairly deliberate decision on the part of the earliest
     Unix C compiler authors, but is inexcusable (in the absence of a
     supplied, consistent lint, or equivalent error checking) in a
     modern compiler.

48.  How can I shut off the "warning: possible pointer alignment
     problem" message lint gives me for each call to malloc?

A:   The problem is that traditional versions of lint do not know, and
     cannot be told, that malloc "returns a pointer to space suitably
     aligned for storage of any type of object."  It is possible to
     provide a pseudoimplementation of malloc, using a #define inside of
     #ifdef lint, which effectively shuts this warning off, but a
     simpleminded #definition will also suppress meaningful messages
     about truly incorrect invocations.  It may be easier simply to
     ignore the message, perhaps in an automated way with grep -v.

49.  Where can I get an ANSI-compatible lint?

A:   A product called FlexeLint is available (in "shrouded source form,"
     for compilation on 'most any system) from

          Gimpel Software
          3207 Hogarth Lane
          Collegeville, PA  19426  USA
          (+1) 215 584 4261

     The System V release 4 lint is ANSI-compatible, and is available
     separately (bundled with other C tools) from Unix Support Labs (a
     subsidiary of AT&T), or from System V resellers.

50.  Don't ANSI function prototypes render lint obsolete?

A:   Not really.  First of all, prototypes work well only if the
     programmer works assiduously to maintain them, and the effort to do
     so (plus the extra recompilations required by numerous, more-
     frequently-modified header files) can rival the toil of keeping
     function calls correct manually.  Secondly, an independent program
     like lint will probably always be more scrupulous at enforcing
     compatible, portable coding practices than will any particular,
     implementation-specific, feature- and extension-laden compiler.
     (Some vendors seem to introduce incompatible extensions
     deliberately, perhaps to lock in market share.)


Section 8. Memory Allocation

51.  Why doesn't this fragment work?

          char *answer;
          printf("Type something:\n");
          gets(answer);
          printf("You typed \"%s\"\n", answer);

A:   The pointer variable "answer," which is handed to the gets function
     as the location into which the response should be stored, has not
     been set to point to any valid storage.  It is an uninitialized
     variable, just as is the variable i in

          int i;
          printf("i = %d\n", i);

     That is, we cannot say where the pointer "answer" points.  (Since
     local variables are not initialized, and typically contain garbage,
     it is not even guaranteed that "answer" starts out as a null
     pointer.  See question 89.)

     The simplest way to correct the question-asking program is to use a
     local array, instead of a pointer, and let the compiler worry about
     allocation:

          #include <string.h>

          char answer[100], *p;
          printf("Type something:\n");
          fgets(answer, 100, stdin);
          if((p = strchr(answer, '\n')) != NULL)
                  *p = '\0';
          printf("You typed \"%s\"\n", answer);

     Note that this example also uses fgets instead of gets (always a
     good idea), so that the size of the array can be specified, so that
     fgets will not overwrite the end of the array if the user types an
     overly-long line.  (Unfortunately, fgets does not automatically
     delete the trailing \n, as gets would.)  It would also be possible
     to use malloc to allocate the answer buffer, and/or to parameterize
     its size (#define ANSWERSIZE 100).

52.  I can't get strcat to work.  I tried

          char *s1 = "Hello, ";
          char *s2 = "world!";
          char *s3 = strcat(s1, s2);
          printf("%s\n", s3);

     but I got strange results.

A:   Again, the problem is that space for the concatenated result is not
     properly allocated.  C does not provide an automatically-managed
     string type.  C compilers only allocate memory for objects
     explicitly mentioned in the source code (in the case of "strings,"
     this includes character arrays and string literals).  The
     programmer must arrange (explicitly) for sufficient space for the
     results of run-time operations such as string concatenation,
     typically by declaring arrays, or by calling malloc.

     strcat performs no allocation; the second string is appended to the
     first one, in place.  Therefore, one fix would be to declare the
     first string as an array with sufficient space:

          char s1[20] = "Hello, ";

     Since strcat returns its first argument, the s3 variable is
     superfluous.

     Reference: CT&P Sec. 3.2 p. 32.

53.  But the man page for strcat says that it takes two char *'s as
     arguments.  How am I supposed to know to allocate things?

A:   In general, when using pointers you _always_ have to consider
     memory allocation, at least to make sure that the compiler is doing
     it for you.

     The Synopsis section at the top of a Unix-style man page can be
     misleading.  The code fragments presented there are closer to the
     function definition used by the call's implementor than the
     invocation used by the caller.  In particular, many routines accept
     pointers (e.g. to structs or strings), and the caller usually
     passes the address of some object (a struct, or an array -- see
     questions 20 and 21.)  Another common example is stat().

54.  You can't use dynamically-allocated memory after you free it, can
     you?

A:   No.  Some early man pages for malloc stated that the contents of
     freed memory was "left undisturbed;" this ill-advised guarantee is
     not universal and is not required by ANSI.

     Few programmers would use the contents of freed memory
     deliberately, but it is easy to do so accidentally.  Consider the
     following (correct) code for freeing a singly-linked list:

          struct list *listp, *nextp;
          for(listp = base; listp != NULL; listp = nextp) {
                  nextp = listp->next;
                  free((char *)listp);
          }

     and notice what would happen if the more-obvious loop iteration
     expression listp = listp->next were used, without the temporary
     nextp pointer.

     References: ANSI Rationale Sec. 4.10.3.2 p. 102; CT&P Sec. 7.10
     p. 95.

55.  How does free() know how many bytes to free?

A:   The malloc/free package remembers the size of each block it
     allocates and returns, so it is not necessary to remind it of the
     size when freeing.

56.  Is it legal to pass a null pointer as the first argument to
     realloc()?  Why would you want to?

A:   ANSI C sanctions this usage (and the related realloc(..., 0), which
     frees), but several earlier implementations do not support it, so
     it is not widely portable.  Passing an initially-null pointer to
     realloc can make it easy to write a self-starting incremental
     allocation algorithm.

     References: ANSI Sec. 4.10.3.4 .

57.  What is the difference between calloc and malloc?  Is it safe to
     use calloc's zero-fill guarantee for pointer and floating-point
     values?  Does free work on memory allocated with calloc, or do you
     need a cfree?

A:   calloc(m, n) is essentially equivalent to

          p = malloc(m * n);
          memset(p, 0, m * n);

     The zero fill is all-bits-zero, and does not therefore guarantee
     useful zero values for pointers (see questions 1-16) or floating-
     point values.  free can (and should) be used to free the memory
     allocated by calloc.

     References: ANSI Secs. 4.10.3 to 4.10.3.2 .

58.  What is alloca and why is its use discouraged?

A:   alloca allocates memory which is automatically freed when the
     function from which alloca was called returns.  That is, memory
     allocated with alloca is local to a particular function's "stack
     frame" or context.

     alloca cannot be written portably, and is difficult to implement on
     machines without a stack.  Its use is problematical (and the
     obvious implementation on a stack-based machine fails) when its
     return value is passed directly to another function, as in
     fgets(alloca(100), 100, stdin).

     For these reasons, alloca cannot be used in programs which must be
     widely portable, no matter how useful it might be.


Section 9. Structures

59.  I heard that structures could be assigned to variables and passed
     to and from functions, but K&R I says not.

A:   What K&R I said was that the restrictions on struct operations
     would be lifted in a forthcoming version of the compiler, and in
     fact struct assignment and passing were fully functional in
     Ritchie's compiler even as K&R I was being published.  Although a
     few early C compilers lacked struct assignment, all modern
     compilers support it, and it is part of the ANSI C standard, so
     there should be no reluctance to use it.

     References: K&R I Sec. 6.2 p. 121; K&R II Sec. 6.2 p. 129; H&S Sec.
     5.6.2 p. 103; ANSI Secs. 3.1.2.5, 3.2.2.1, 3.3.16 .

60.  How does struct passing and returning work?

A:   When structures are passed as arguments to functions, the entire
     struct is typically pushed on the stack, using as many words as are
     required.  (Pointers to structures are often chosen precisely to
     avoid this overhead.)

     Structures are typically returned from functions in a location
     pointed to by an extra, compiler-supplied "hidden" argument to the
     function.  Older compilers often used a special, static location
     for structure returns, although this made struct-valued functions
     nonreentrant, which ANSI C disallows.

     Reference: ANSI Sec. 2.2.3 p. 13.

61.  The following program works correctly, but it dumps core after it
     finishes.  Why?

          struct list
                  {
                  char *item;
                  struct list *next;
                  }

          /* Here is the main program. */

          main(argc, argv)
          ...

A:   A missing semicolon causes the compiler to believe that main
     returns a struct list.  (The connection is hard to see because of
     the intervening comment.)  Since struct-valued functions are
     usually implemented by adding a hidden return pointer, the
     generated code for main() actually expects three arguments,
     although only two were passed (in this case, by the C start-up
     code).  See also question 103.

     Reference: CT&P Sec. 2.3 pp. 21-2.

62.  Why can't you compare structs?

A:   There is no reasonable way for a compiler to implement struct
     comparison which is consistent with C's low-level flavor.  A byte-
     by-byte comparison could be invalidated by random bits present in
     unused "holes" in the structure (such padding is used to keep the
     alignment of later fields correct).  A field-by-field comparison
     would require unacceptable amounts of repetitive, in-line code for
     large structures.  Either method would not necessarily "do the
     right thing" with pointer fields: oftentimes, equality should be
     judged by equality of the things pointed to rather than strict
     equality of the pointers themselves.

     If you want to compare two structures, you must write your own
     function to do so.  C++ (among other languages) would let you
     arrange for the == operator to map to your function.

     References: K&R II Sec. 6.2 p. 129; H&S Sec. 5.6.2 p. 103; ANSI
     Rationale Sec. 3.3.9 p. 47.

63.  I came across some code that declared a structure like this:

          struct name
                  {
                  int namelen;
                  char name[1];
                  };

     and then did some tricky allocation to make the name array act like
     it had several elements.  Is this legal and/or portable?

A:   This technique is popular, although Dennis Ritchie has called it
     "unwarranted chumminess with the compiler."  The ANSI C standard
     allows it only implicitly.  It seems to be portable to all known
     implementations.  (Compilers which check array bounds carefully
     might issue warnings.)

64.  How can I determine the byte offset of a field within a structure?

A:   ANSI C defines the offsetof macro, which should be used if
     available; see <stddef.h>.  If you don't have it, a suggested
     implementation is

          #define offsetof(type, mem) ((size_t) \
                  ((char *)&((type *) 0)->mem - (char *)((type *) 0)))

     This implementation is not 100% portable; some compilers may
     legitimately refuse to accept it.

     See the next question for a usage hint.

     Reference: ANSI Sec. 4.1.5 .

65.  How can I access structure fields by name at run time?

A:   Build a table of names and offsets, using the offsetof() macro.
     The offset of field b in struct a is

          offsetb = offsetof(struct a, b)

     If structp is a pointer to an instance of this structure, and b is
     an int field with offset as computed above, b's value can be set
     indirectly with

          *(int *)((char *)structp + offsetb) = value;


Section 10. Declarations

66.  How do you decide which integer type to use?

A:   If you might need large values (above 32767 or below -32767), use
     long.  If space is very important (there are large arrays or many
     structures), use short.  Otherwise, use int.  If well-defined
     overflow characteristics are important and/or sign is not, use
     unsigned.

     Similar arguments operate when deciding between float and double.
     Exceptions apply if the address of a variable is taken and must
     have a particular type.

     In general, don't try to use char or unsigned char as a "tiny" int
     type; doing so is often more trouble than it's worth.

67.  I can't seem to define a linked list node which contains a pointer
     to itself.  I tried

          typedef struct
                  {
                  char *item;
                  NODEPTR next;
                  } NODE, *NODEPTR;

     but the compiler gave me error messages.  Can't a struct in C
     contain a pointer to itself?

A:   Structs in C can certainly contain pointers to themselves; the
     discussion and example in section 6.5 of K&R make this clear.  The
     problem is that the example above attempts to hide the struct
     pointer behind a typedef, which is not complete at the time it is
     used.  First, rewrite it without a typedef:

          struct node
                  {
                  char *item;
                  struct node *next;
                  };

     Then, if you wish to use typedefs, define them after the fact:

          typedef struct node NODE, *NODEPTR;

     Alternatively, define the typedefs first (using the line just
     above) and follow it with the full definition of struct node, which
     can then use the NODEPTR typedef for the "next" field.

     References: K&R I Sec. 6.5 p. 101; K&R II Sec. 6.5 p. 139; H&S Sec.
     5.6.1 p. 102; ANSI Sec. 3.5.2.3 .

68.  How can I define a pair of mutually referential structures?  I
     tried

          typedef struct
                  {
                  int structafield;
                  STRUCTB *bpointer;
                  } STRUCTA;

          typedef struct
                  {
                  int structbfield;
                  STRUCTA *apointer;
                  } STRUCTB;

     but the compiler doesn't know about STRUCTB when it is used in
     struct a.

A:   Again, the problem lies not in the pointers but the typedefs.
     First, define the two structures without using typedefs:

          struct a
                  {
                  int structafield;
                  struct b *bpointer;
                  };

          struct b
                  {
                  int structbfield;
                  struct a *apointer;
                  };

     The compiler can accept the field declaration struct b *bpointer
     within struct a, even though it has not yet heard of struct b.
     Occasionally it is necessary to precede this couplet with the empty
     declaration

          struct b;

     to mask the declarations (if in an inner scope) from a different
     struct b in an outer scope.

     Again, the typedefs could also be defined before, and then used
     within, the definitions for struct a and struct b.  Problems arise
     only when an attempt is made to define and use a typedef within the
     same declaration.

     References: H&S Sec. 5.6.1 p. 102; ANSI Sec. 3.5.2.3 .

69.  How do I declare an array of pointers to functions returning
     pointers to functions returning pointers to characters?

A:   This question can be answered in at least three ways (all assume
     the hypothetical array is to have 5 elements):

     1.   char *(*(*a[5])())();

     2.   Build it up in stages, using typedefs:

               typedef char *pc;        /* pointer to char */
               typedef pc fpc();        /* function returning pointer to char */
               typedef fpc *pfpc;       /* pointer to above */
               typedef pfpc fpfpc();    /* function returning... */
               typedef fpfpc *pfpfpc;   /* pointer to... */
               pfpfpc a[5];             /* array of... */

     3.   Use the cdecl program, which turns English into C and vice
          versa:

               $ cdecl
               cdecl> declare a as array 5 of pointer to function returning
                          pointer to function returning pointer to char
               char *(*(*a[5])())()
               cdecl>

          cdecl can also explain complicated declarations, help with
          casts, and indicate which set of parentheses the arguments go
          in (for complicated function definitions, like the above).

     Any good book on C should explain how to read these complicated C
     declarations "inside out" to understand them ("declaration mimics
     use").

     Reference: H&S Sec. 5.10.1 p. 116.

70.  So where can I get cdecl?

A:   Several public-domain versions are available.  One is in volume 14
     of comp.sources.unix .  (Commercial versions may also be available,
     at least one of which was shamelessly lifted from the public domain
     copy submitted by Graham Ross, one of cdecl's originators.) See
     question 96.

     Reference: K&R II Sec. 5.12 .

71.  I finally figured out the syntax for declaring pointers to
     functions, but now how do I initialize one?

A:   Use something like

          extern int func();
          int (*fp)() = func;

     When the name of a function appears in an expression but is not
     being called (i.e. is not followed by a "("), it "decays" into a
     pointer (i.e. it has its address implicitly taken), much as an
     array name does.

     An explicit extern declaration for the function is normally needed,
     since implicit external function declaration does not happen in
     this case (again, because the function name is not followed by a
     "(").

72.  I've seen different methods used for calling through pointers to
     functions.  What's the story?

A:   Originally, a pointer to a function had to be "turned into" a
     "real" function, with the * operator (and an extra pair of
     parentheses, to keep the precedence straight), before calling:

          int r, f(), (*fp)() = f;
          r = (*fp)();

     Another analysis holds that functions are always called through
     pointers, but that "real" functions decay implicitly into pointers
     (in expressions, as they do in initializations) and so cause no
     trouble.  This reasoning, which was adopted in the ANSI standard,
     means that

          r = fp();

     is legal and works correctly, whether fp is a function or a pointer
     to one.  (The usage has always been unambiguous; there is nothing
     you ever could have done with a function pointer followed by an
     argument list except call through it.)  An explicit * is harmless,
     and still allowed (and recommended, if portability to older
     compilers is important).

     References: ANSI Sec. 3.3.2.2 p. 41, Rationale p. 41.


Section 11. Boolean Expressions and Variables

73.  What is the right type to use for boolean values in C?  Why isn't
     it a standard type?  Should #defines or enums be used for the true
     and false values?

A:   C does not provide a standard boolean type, because picking one
     involves a space/time tradeoff which is best decided by the
     programmer.  (Using an int for a boolean may be faster, while using
     char may save data space.)

     The choice between #defines and enums is arbitrary and not terribly
     interesting.  Use any of

          #define TRUE  1             #define YES 1
          #define FALSE 0             #define NO  0

          enum bool {false, true};    enum bool {no, yes};

     or use raw 1 and 0, as long as you are consistent within one
     program or project.  (An enum may be preferable if your debugger
     expands enum values when examining variables.)

     Some people prefer variants like

          #define TRUE (1==1)
          #define FALSE (!TRUE)

     or define "helper" macros such as

          #define Istrue(e) ((e) != 0)

     These don't buy anything (see below).

74.  Isn't #defining TRUE to be 1 dangerous, since any nonzero value is
     considered "true" in C?  What if a built-in boolean or relational
     operator "returns" something other than 1?

A:   It is true (sic) that any nonzero value is considered true in C,
     but this applies only "on input", i.e. where a boolean value is
     expected.  When a boolean value is generated by a built-in
     operator, it is guaranteed to be 1 or 0.  Therefore, the test

          if((a == b) == TRUE)

     will work as expected (as long as TRUE is 1), but it is obviously
     silly.  In general, explicit tests against TRUE and FALSE are
     undesirable, because some library functions (notably isupper,
     isalpha, etc.) return, on success, a nonzero value which is _not_
     necessarily 1.  (Besides, if you believe that
     "if((a == b) == TRUE)" is an improvement over "if(a == b)", why
     stop there?  Why not use "if(((a == b) == TRUE) == TRUE)"?)  A good
     rule of thumb is to use TRUE and FALSE (or the like) only for
     assignment to a Boolean variable, or as the return value from a
     Boolean function, never in a comparison.

     The preprocessor macros TRUE and FALSE (and, of course, NULL) are
     used for code readability, not because the underlying values might
     ever change.  That "true" is 1 and "false" 0 is guaranteed by the
     language.  (See also question 8.)

     References: K&R I Sec. 2.7 p. 41; K&R II Sec. 2.6 p. 42, Sec.
     A7.4.7 p. 204, Sec. A7.9 p. 206; ANSI Secs. 3.3.3.3, 3.3.8, 3.3.9,
     3.3.13, 3.3.14, 3.3.15, 3.6.4.1, 3.6.5; Achilles and the Tortoise.

75.  What is the difference between an enum and a series of preprocessor
     #defines?

A:   At the present time, there is little difference.  Although many
     people might have wished otherwise, the ANSI standard says that
     enumerations may be freely intermixed with integral types, without
     errors.  (If such intermixing were disallowed without explicit
     casts, judicious use of enums could catch certain programming
     errors.)

     The primary advantages of enums are that the numeric values are
     automatically assigned, and that a debugger may be able to display
     the symbolic values when enum variables are examined.  (A compiler
     may also generate nonfatal warnings when enums and ints are
     indiscriminately mixed, since doing so can still be considered bad
     style even though it is not strictly illegal).  A disadvantage is
     that the programmer has little control over the size.

     References: K&R II Sec. 2.3 p. 39, Sec. A4.2 p. 196; H&S Sec. 5.5
     p. 100; ANSI Secs. 3.1.2.5, 3.5.2, 3.5.2.2 .


Section 12. Operating System Dependencies

76.  How can I read a single character from the keyboard without waiting
     for a newline?

A:   Contrary to popular belief and many people's wishes, this is not a
     C-related question.  The delivery of characters from a "keyboard"
     to a C program is a function of the operating system in use, and
     cannot be standardized by the C language.  If you are using curses,
     use its cbreak() function.  Under UNIX, use ioctl to play with the
     terminal driver modes (CBREAK or RAW under "classic" versions;
     ICANON, c_cc[VMIN] and c_cc[VTIME] under System V or Posix
     systems).  Under MS-DOS, use getch().  Under other operating
     systems, you're on your own.  Beware that some operating systems
     make this sort of thing impossible, because character collection
     into input lines is done by peripheral processors not under direct
     control of the CPU running your program.

     Operating system specific questions are not appropriate for
     comp.lang.c .  Many common questions are answered in frequently-
     asked questions postings in such groups as comp.unix.questions and
     comp.os.msdos.programmer .  Note that the answers are often not
     unique even across different variants of Unix.  Bear in mind when
     answering system-specific questions that the answer that applies to
     your system may not apply to everyone else's.

     References: PCS Sec. 10 pp. 128-9, Sec. 10.1 pp. 130-1.

77.  How can I find out if there are characters available for reading
     (and if so, how many)?  Alternatively, how can I do a read that
     will not block if there are no characters available?

A:   These, too, are entirely operating-system-specific.  Some versions
     of curses have a nodelay() function.  Depending on your system, you
     may also be able to use "nonblocking I/O", or a system call named
     "select", or the FIONREAD ioctl, or kbhit(), or rdchk(), or the
     O_NDELAY option to open() or fcntl().

78.  How can my program discover the complete pathname to the executable
     file from which it was invoked?

A:   argv[0] may contain all or part of the pathname, or it may contain
     nothing.  You may be able to duplicate the command language
     interpreter's search path logic to locate the executable if the
     name in argv[0] is present but incomplete.  However, there is no
     guaranteed or portable solution.

79.  How can a process change an environment variable in its caller?

A:   In general, it cannot.  Different operating systems implement
     name/value functionality similar to the Unix environment in many
     different ways.  Whether the "environment" can be usefully altered
     by a running program, and if so, how, is entirely system-dependent.

     Under Unix, a process can modify its own environment (some systems
     provide setenv() and/or putenv() functions to do this), and the
     modified environment is usually passed on to any child processes,
     but it is _not_ propagated back to the parent process.  (The
     environment of the parent process can only be altered if the parent
     is explicitly set up to listen for some kind of change requests.
     The conventional execution of the BSD "tset" program in .profile
     and .login files effects such a scheme.)

80.  How can a file be shortened in-place without completely clearing or
     rewriting it?

A:   BSD systems provide ftruncate(), and several others supply
     chsize(), but there is no truly portable solution.


Section 13. Stdio

81.  Why does errno contain ENOTTY after a call to printf?

A:   Many implementations of the stdio package adjust their behavior
     slightly if stdout is a terminal.  To make the determination, these
     implementations perform an operation which fails (with ENOTTY) if
     stdout is not a terminal.  Although the output operation goes on to
     complete successfully, errno still contains ENOTTY.  This behavior
     can be mildly confusing, but it is not strictly incorrect, because
     it is only meaningful for a program to inspect the contents of
     errno after an error has occurred (that is, after a library
     function that sets errno on error has returned an error code).

     Reference: CT&P Sec. 5.4 p. 73.

82.  My program's prompts and intermediate output don't always show up
     on the screen, especially when I pipe the output through another
     program.

A:   It is best to use an explicit fflush(stdout) whenever output should
     definitely be visible.  Several mechanisms attempt to perform the
     fflush for you, at the "right time," but they tend to apply only
     when stdout is a terminal.  (See question 81.)

83.  When I read from the keyboard with scanf(), it seems to hang until
     I type one extra line of input.

A:   scanf() was designed for free-format input, which is seldom what
     you want when reading from the keyboard.  In particular, "\n" in a
     format string does not mean "expect a newline", it means "discard
     all whitespace".  But the only way to discard all whitespace is to
     continue reading the stream until a non-whitespace character is
     seen (which is then left in the buffer for the next input), so the
     effect is that it keeps going until it sees a nonblank line.

84.  So what should I use instead?

A:   You could use a "%c" format, which will read one character that you
     can then manually compare against a newline; or "%*c" and no
     variable if you're willing to trust the user to hit a newline; or
     "%*[^\n]%*c" to discard everything up to and including the newline.
     Usually the best solution is to use fgets() to read a whole line,
     and then use sscanf() or other string functions to parse the line
     buffer.

85.  How can I recover the file name given an open file descriptor?

A:   This problem is, in general, insoluble.  Under Unix, for instance,
     a scan of the entire disk, (perhaps requiring special permissions)
     would be required, and would fail if the file descriptor were a
     pipe (and could give a misleading answer for a file with multiple
     links).  It is best to remember the names of open files yourself
     (perhaps with a wrapper function around fopen).


Section 14. Style

86.  Here's a neat trick:

          if(!strcmp(s1, s2))

     Is this good style?

A:   No.  This is a classic example of C minimalism carried to an
     obnoxious degree.  The test succeeds if the two strings are equal,
     but its form strongly suggests that it tests for inequality.

     A much better solution is to use a macro:

          #define Streq(s1, s2) (strcmp(s1, s2) == 0)

87.  What's the best style for code layout in C?

A:   K&R, while providing the example most often copied, also supply a
     good excuse for avoiding it:

          The position of braces is less important, although
          people hold passionate beliefs.  We have chosen one
          of several popular styles.  Pick a style that suits
          you, then use it consistently.

     It is more important that the layout chosen be consistent (with
     itself, and with nearby or common code) than that it be "perfect."
     If your coding environment (i.e. local custom or company policy)
     does not suggest a style, and you don't feel like inventing your
     own, just copy K&R.  (The tradeoffs between various indenting and
     brace placement options can be exhaustively and minutely examined,
     but don't warrant repetition here.  See also the Indian Hill Style
     Guide.)

     Reference: K&R Sec. 1.2 p. 10.

88.  Where can I get the "Indian Hill Style Guide" and other coding
     standards?

A:   Various documents are available for anonymous ftp from:

          Site:                     File or directory:

          cs.washington.edu         ~ftp/pub/cstyle.tar.Z
          (128.95.1.4)              (the updated Indian Hill guide)

          cs.toronto.edu            doc/programming

          giza.cis.ohio-state.edu   pub/style-guide

          prep.ai.mit.edu           pub/gnu/standards.text


Section 15. Miscellaneous

89.  What can I safely assume about the initial values of variables
     which are not explicitly initialized?  If global variables start
     out as "zero," is that good enough for null pointers and floating-
     point zeroes?

A:   Variables (and arrays) with "static" duration (that is, those
     declared outside of functions, and those declared with the storage
     class static), are guaranteed initialized to zero, as if the
     programmer had typed "= 0".  Therefore, such variables are
     initialized to the null pointer (of the correct type) if they are
     pointers, and to 0.0 if they are floating-point.  This requirement
     means that compilers and linkers on machines which use nonzero
     internal representations for null pointers and/or floating-point
     zeroes cannot necessarily make use of uninitialized, 0-filled
     memory, but must emit explicit initializers for these values
     (rather as if the programmer had).

     Variables with "automatic" duration (i.e. local variables without
     the static storage class) start out containing garbage, unless they
     are explicitly initialized.  Nothing useful can be predicted about
     the garbage.

     Dynamically-allocated memory obtained with malloc and realloc is
     also likely to contain garbage, and must be initialized by the
     calling program, as appropriate.  Memory obtained with calloc
     contains all-bits-0, but this is not necessarily useful for pointer
     or floating-point values (see question 57).

90.  Can someone tell me how to write itoa (the inverse of atoi)?

A:   Just use sprintf.  (You'll have to allocate space for the result
     somewhere anyway; see questions 51 and 52.  Don't worry that
     sprintf may be overkill, potentially wasting run time or code
     space; it works well in practice.)

     References: K&R I Sec. 3.6 p. 60; K&R II Sec. 3.6 p. 64.

91.  I know that the library routine localtime will convert a time_t
     into a broken-down struct tm, and that ctime will convert a time_t
     to a printable string.  How can I perform the inverse operations of
     converting a struct tm or a string into a time_t?

A:   ANSI C specifies a library routine, mktime, which converts a
     struct tm to a time_t.  Several public-domain versions of this
     routine are available in case your compiler does not support it
     yet.

     Converting a string to a time_t is harder, because of the wide
     variety of date and time formats which should be parsed.  Public-
     domain routines have been written for performing this function, as
     well (see, for example, the file partime.c, widely distributed with
     the RCS package), but they are less likely to become standardized.

     References: K&R II Sec. B10 p. 256; H&S Sec. 20.4 p. 361; ANSI Sec.
     4.12.2.3 .

92.  How can I write data files which can be read on other machines with
     different word size, byte order, or floating point formats?

A:   The best solution is to use text files (usually ASCII), written
     with fprintf and read with fscanf or the like.  (Similar advice
     also applies to network protocols.)  Be very skeptical of arguments
     which imply that text files are too big, or that reading and
     writing them is too slow.  Not only is their efficiency frequently
     acceptable in practice, but the advantages of being able to
     manipulate them with standard tools can be overwhelming.

     If the binary format is being imposed on you by an existing
     program, first see if you can get that program changed to use a
     more portable format.

     If you must use a binary format, you can improve portability, and
     perhaps take advantage of prewritten I/O libraries, by making use
     of standardized formats such as Sun's XDR, OSI's ASN.1, or CCITT's
     X.409 .

93.  I seem to be missing the system header file <sgtty.h>.  Can someone
     send me a copy?

A:   Standard headers exist in part so that definitions appropriate to
     your compiler, operating system, and processor can be supplied.
     You cannot just pick up a copy of someone else's header file and
     expect it to work, unless that person is using exactly the same
     environment.  Ask your compiler vendor why the file was not
     provided (or to send a replacement copy).

94.  How can I call Fortran (BASIC, Pascal, ADA, lisp) functions from C?
     (And vice versa?)

A:   The answer is entirely dependent on the machine and the specific
     calling sequences of the various compilers in use, and may not be
     possible at all.  Read your compiler documentation very carefully;
     sometimes there is a "mixed-language programming guide," although
     the techniques for passing arguments and ensuring correct run-time
     startup are often arcane.

95.  Does anyone know of a program for converting Pascal (Fortran, lisp,
     "Old" C, ...) to C?

A:   Several public-domain programs are available:

     p2c    written by Dave Gillespie, and posted to comp.sources.unix
            in March, 1990 (Volume 21).

     ptoc   another comp.sources.unix contribution, this one written in
            Pascal (comp.sources.unix, Volume 10, also patches in Volume
            13?).

     f2c    jointly developed by people from Bell Labs, Bellcore, and
            Carnegie Mellon.  To find about f2c, send the mail message
            "send index from f2c" to netlib at research.att.com or
            research!netlib.  (It is also available via anonymous ftp on
            research.att.com, in directory dist/f2c.)

     The following companies sell various translation tools and
     services:

            Cobalt Blue
            2940 Union Ave., Suite C
            San Jose, CA  95124  USA
            (+1) 408 723 0474

            Promula Development Corp.
            3620 N. High St., Suite 301
            Columbus, OH  43214  USA
            (+1) 614 263 5454

            Lexeme Corporation
            Richard Cox
            4 Station Square, #250
            Commerce Court
            Pittsburgh, PA  15219-1119  USA
            (+1) 412 281 5454

            Micro-Processor Services Inc
            92 Stone Hurst Lane
            Dix Hills, NY  11746  USA
            (+1) 519 499 4461

     The comp.sources.unix archives also contain converters between
     "K&R" C and ANSI C.

96.  Where can I get copies of all these public-domain programs?

A:   If you have access to Usenet, see the regular postings in the
     comp.sources.unix and comp.sources.misc newsgroups, which describe,
     in some detail, the archiving policies and how to retrieve copies.
     The usual approach is to use anonymous ftp and/or uucp from a
     central, public-spirited site, such as uunet.uu.net (192.48.96.2).
     However, this article cannot track or list all of the available
     archive sites and how to access them.  The comp.archives newsgroup
     contains numerous announcements of anonymous ftp availability of
     various items.  The "archie" mailserver can tell you which
     anonymous ftp sites have which packages; send the mail message
     "help" to archie at quiche.cs.mcgill.ca for information.

97.  Where can I get the winners of old Obfuscated C Contests?  When
     will the next contest be held?

A:   Send mail to {pacbell,uunet,utzoo}!hoptoad!obfuscate .  The contest
     is usually announced in March, with entries due in May.  Contest
     announcements are posted in several obvious places.  The winning
     entries are archived on uunet (see question 96).

98.  Why don't C comments nest?  Are they legal inside quoted strings?

A:   Nested comments would cause more harm than good, mostly because of
     the possibility of accidentally leaving comments unclosed by
     including the characters "/*" within them.  For this reason, it is
     usually better to "comment out" large sections of code, which might
     contain comments, with #ifdef or #if 0 (but see question 34).

     The character sequences /* and */ are not special within double-
     quoted strings, and do not therefore introduce comments, because a
     program (particularly one which is generating C code as output)
     might want to print them.  It is hard to imagine why anyone would
     want or need to place a comment inside a quoted string.  It is easy
     to imagine a program needing to print "/*".

     Reference: ANSI Rationale Sec. 3.1.9 p. 33.

99.  How can I make this code more efficient?

A:   Efficiency, though a favorite comp.lang.c topic, is not important
     nearly as often as people tend to think it is.  Most of the code in
     most programs is not time-critical.  When code is not time-
     critical, it is far more important that it be written clearly and
     portably than that it be written maximally efficiently.  (Remember
     that computers are very, very fast, and that even "inefficient"
     code can run without apparent delay.)

     It is notoriously difficult to predict what the "hot spots" in a
     program will be.  When efficiency is a concern, it is important to
     use profiling software to determine which parts of the program
     deserve attention.  Often, actual computation time is swamped by
     peripheral tasks such as I/O and memory allocation, which can be
     sped up by using buffering and cacheing techniques.

     For the small fraction of code that is time-critical, it is vital
     to pick a good algorithm; it is much less important to
     "microoptimize" the coding details.  Source-level optimizations
     rarely make significant improvements, and often render code opaque.
     Many of the "efficient coding tricks" which are frequently
     suggested (e.g. substituting shift operators for multiplication by
     powers of two) are performed automatically by even simpleminded
     compilers.  Heavyhanded "optimization" attempts can make code so
     bulky that performance is degraded.  If the performance of your
     code is so important that you are willing to invest programming
     time in source-level optimizations, you would be better served by
     buying the best optimizing compiler you can afford (compilers can
     perform optimizations that are impossible at the source level).

     It is not the intent here to suggest that efficiency can be
     completely ignored.  Most of the time, however, by simply paying
     attention to good algorithm choices, implementing them clearly and
     obviously, and avoiding obviously inefficient blunders (i.e. shun
     O(n**3) implementations of O(n**2) algorithms), perfectly
     acceptable results can be achieved.

100. Are pointers really faster than arrays?  Do function calls really
     slow things down?  Is i++ faster than i = i + 1?

A:   Precise answers to these and many similar questions depend of course on
     the processor and compiler in use.  If you simply must know, you'll
     have to time test programs carefully.  (Often the differences are
     so slight that hundreds of thousands of iterations are required
     even to see them.  Check the compiler's assembly language output,
     if available, to see if two purported alternatives aren't compiled
     identically.)

     It is "usually" faster to march through large arrays with pointers
     rather than array subscripts, but for some processors the reverse
     is true.

     Function calls, though obviously incrementally slower than in-line
     code, contribute so much to modularity and code clarity that there
     is rarely good reason to avoid them.  (Actually, by reducing bulk,
     functions can improve performance.)

     Before rearranging expressions such as i = i + 1, remember that you
     are dealing with a C compiler, not a keystroke-programmable
     calculator.  A good compiler will generate identical code for i++,
     i += 1, and i = i + 1.  The reasons for using i++ or i += 1 over
     i = i + 1 have to do with style, not efficiency.

101. My floating-point calculations are acting strangely and giving me
     different answers on different machines.

A:   Most digital computers use floating-point formats which provide a
     close but by no means exact simulation of real number arithmetic.
     Among other things, the associative and distributive laws do not
     hold completely (i.e. order of operation may be important, repeated
     addition is not necessarily equivalent to multiplication, and
     underflow or cumulative precision loss is often a problem).

     Don't assume that floating-point results will be exact, and
     especially don't assume that floating-point values can be compared
     for equality.  (Don't throw haphazard "fuzz factors" in, either.)

     These problems are no worse for C than they are for any other
     computer language.  Floating-point semantics are usually defined as
     "however the processor does them;" otherwise a compiler for a
     machine without the "right" model would have to do prohibitively
     expensive emulations.

     This article cannot begin to list the pitfalls associated with, and
     workarounds appropriate for, floating-point work.  A good
     programming text should cover the basics.  (Beware, though, that
     subtle problems can occupy numerical analysts for years.)  Do make
     sure that you have #included <math.h>, and correctly declared other
     functions returning double.

     References: K&P Sec. 6 pp. 115-8.

102. I'm having trouble with a Turbo C program which crashes and says
     something like "floating point not loaded."

A:   Some compilers for small machines, including Turbo C (and Ritchie's
     original PDP-11 compiler), leave out floating point support if it
     looks like it will not be needed.  In particular, the non-
     floating-point versions of printf and scanf save space by not
     including code to handle %e, %f, and %g.  It happens that Turbo C's
     heuristics for determining whether the program uses floating point
     are occasionally insufficient, and the programmer must sometimes
     insert one dummy explicit floating-point operation to force loading
     of floating-point support.

     In general, questions about a particular compiler are inappropriate
     for comp.lang.c .  Problems with PC compilers, for instance, will
     find a more receptive audience in a PC newsgroup (e.g.
     comp.os.msdos.programmer).

103. This program crashes before it even runs!  (When single-stepping
     with a debugger, it dies before the first statement in main.)

A:   You probably have one or more very large (kilobyte or more) local
     arrays.  Many systems have fixed-size stacks, and those which
     perform dynamic stack allocation automatically (e.g. Unix) are often
     confused when the stack tries to grow by a huge chunk all at once.

     It is often better to declare large arrays with static duration
     (unless of course you need a fresh set with each recursive call).

104. Does anyone have a C compiler test suite I can use?

A:   Plum Hall (1 Spruce Ave., Cardiff, NJ 08232, USA), among others,
     sells one.

105. Where can I get a YACC grammar for C?

A:   The definitive grammar is of course the one in the ANSI standard.
     Several copies are floating around; keep your eyes open.  There is
     one on uunet.uu.net (192.48.96.2) in net.sources/ansi.c.grammar.Z .
     The FSF's GNU C compiler contains a grammar, as does the appendix
     to K&R II.

     References: ANSI Sec. A.2 .

106. How do you pronounce "char"?  What's that funny name for the "#"
     character?

A:   You can pronounce the C keyword "char" like the English words
     "char," "care," or "car;" the choice is arbitrary.  Bell Labs once
     proposed the (now obsolete) term "octothorpe" for the "#"
     character.

     Trivia questions like these aren't any more pertinent for
     comp.lang.c than they are for any of the other groups they
     frequently come up in.  You can find lots of information in the
     net.announce.newusers frequently-asked questions postings, the
     "jargon file" (also published as _The Hacker's Dictionary_), and
     the official Usenet ASCII pronunciation list, maintained by Maarten
     Litmaath.  (The pronunciation list also appears in the jargon file
     under ASCII, as well as in the comp.unix frequently-asked questions
     list.)

107. Where can I get extra copies of this list?  What about back issues?

A:   For now, just pull it off the net; it is normally posted to
     comp.lang.c on the first of each month, with an Expiration: line
     which should keep it around all month.  Eventually, it may be
     available for anonymous ftp, or via a mailserver.  (Note that the
     size of the list is monotonically increasing; older copies are
     obsolete and don't contain much, except the occasional typo, that
     the current list doesn't.)


Bibliography

ANSI    American National Standard for Information Systems --
        Programming Language -- C, ANSI X3.159-1989 (see question 30).

H&S     Samuel P. Harbison and Guy L. Steele, C: A Reference Manual,
        Second Edition, Prentice-Hall, 1987, ISBN 0-13-109802-0.  (A
        third edition has recently been released.)

PCS     Mark R. Horton, Portable C Software, Prentice Hall, 1990, ISBN
        0-13-868050-7.

K&P     Brian W. Kernighan and P.J. Plaugher, The Elements of
        Programming Style, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1978, ISBN 0-
        07-034207-5.

K&R I   Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie, The C Programming
        Language, Prentice Hall, 1978, ISBN 0-13-110163-3.

K&R II  Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie, The C Programming
        Language, Second Edition, Prentice Hall, 1988, ISBN 0-13-
        110362-8, 0-13-110370-9.

CT&P    Andrew Koenig, C Traps and Pitfalls, Addison-Wesley, 1989, ISBN
        0-201-17928-8.

There is a more extensive bibliography in the revised Indian Hill style
guide (see question 88).


Acknowledgements

Thanks to Sudheer Apte, Joe Buehler, Raymond Chen, Christopher
Calabrese, James Davies, Norm Diamond, Ray Dunn, Stephen M. Dunn, Bjorn
Engsig, Ron Guilmette, Doug Gwyn, Tony Hansen, Joe Harrington, Guy
Harris, Blair Houghton, Kirk Johnson, Andrew Koenig, John Lauro,
Christopher Lott, Tim McDaniel, Evan Manning, Mark Moraes, Francois
Pinard, randall at virginia, Pat Rankin, Rich Salz, Chip Salzenberg, Paul
Sand, Doug Schmidt, Patricia Shanahan, Peter da Silva, Joshua Simons,
Henry Spencer, Erik Talvola, Clarke Thatcher, Chris Torek, Ed Vielmetti,
Larry Virden, Freek Wiedijk, and Dave Wolverton, who have contributed,
directly or indirectly, to this article.  Special thanks to Karl Heuer,
and particularly to Mark Brader, who (to borrow a line from Steve
Johnson) have goaded me beyond my inclination, and frequently beyond my
endurance, in relentless pursuit of a better FAQ list.

                                             Steve Summit
                                             scs at adam.mit.edu
                                             scs%adam.mit.edu at mit.edu
                                             mit-eddie!adam!scs

This article is Copyright 1988, 1990, 1991 by Steve Summit.
It may be freely redistributed so long as the author's name, and this
notice, are retained.
The C code in this article (vstrcat, error, etc.) is public domain and
may be used without restriction.



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